|
Patient
Leaflets
| 1.
The Brain |
 |
| The
brain lies within the cranium. It constitutes about one-fiftieth
of the body weight. Antatomatically, the brain consists of cerebrum,
brain stem and cerebellum. The Cerebrum is subdivided by lobes
according to its location in the cranium. They are frontal,
temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. The Brain Stem consists
of 3 parts : Midbrain, Pons & Medulla. The brain is made up
of nerve cells. The brain and the spinal cord together form
the central nervous system. The brain is an important area for
autonomic reflex activities, voluntary body movement, behavioural,
character and emotional state of the individual. Computerized
Tomographic Scanning and Electro-encephalographu are the common
investigations for the brain. |
|
| 2.
Eye |
|
| The eye
is the organ of vision. The eyeball has three coats. The cornea
is the clear transparent layer on the front of the eyeball.
It is the continuation of the sclera (the white of the eye)
,the tough outer coat that protects the delicate mechanism of
the eye. The choroid is the middle layer and contains blood
vessels. The third layer is the retina which contains cells
that are sensitive to lights. The light rays from the seen object
focus on the retina then transmit to the optic nerve and to
the visual centre in brain. The brain imposes the image and
judges the distance. |
|
| 3.
Ear |
|
| The ear
is the organ of hearing and of equilibrium. The ear is made
up of the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The tympanic
membrane separates the outer ear from the middle ear. It transmits
sound vibrations collected by the outer ear to the inner ear.
In the inner ear is the cochlear, containing the nerves that
transmit sound to the auditory centre in the brain. The inner
ear also contains the semicircular canals which are essential
for the sense of balance. |
|
|
|
| 4.
Nose |
|
| The nose
is the organ of smell and as a means of bringing air into the
lungs. Nostrils form the external entrance of the nose .The
two nasal cavities are separated by the nasal septum formed
of cartilage and bone. The interior of the nose is lined with
mucous membrane covered with minute hairlike projections called
cilia. These cilia sweep out the nasal mucus, pollen, dust and
bacteria from the air. The nerves of smell (Olfactory receptors)
located high in the inferior of each nasal cavity. They sort
out innumerable different odors. |
|
|
|
| 5.
Throat |
|
| The throat
includes the Larynx and Pharynx ,the fauces and the anterior
part of the neck. The Larynx and Pharynx link the nose and mouth
with the respiratory and digestive systems. The larynx is a
muscular and cartilaginous structure lined with mucous membrane.
It is situated at the top of the trachear and below the root
of the tongue and hyoid bone. The largest of the cartilage (the
Thyroid cartilage) forms the Adam's apple. The larynx also contains
the vocal cord which is the source of sound heard in speech. |
|
|
|
| 6.
Tonsils |
|
| Tonsils
are part of the lymphatic system that helps to filter bacteria
in the pharynx. There are three different kinds of tonsils:
Palatine tonsils, Lingual tonsils and Pharyngeal tonsils. |
|
| 7.
Thyroid Gland |
|
| The thyroid
gland is the largest of the endocrine glands, situated in the
frontal and sides of the neck just below the thyroid cartilage.
It produces hormones that are vital in maintaining normal growth
and metabolism. It also serves as a storehouse for iodine. |
|
| 8.
Oesophagus |
|
| The oesophagus
is a pathway through which ingested food and drink reach the
stomach from the mouth. It is about 10 to 12 inches long in
adult. At the junction between the stomach and oesophagus is
a muscular ring known as the cardiac sphincter which regulates
the passage of food into the stomach. |
|
| 9.
Breast |
|
| The breasts
are secondary sex organs in women with the function of milk
production after childbirth. Before puberty, the breasts are
small with little internal glandular structure. With the onset
of puberty in females, much of the breast enlargement is due
to fat deposition. Hormone secretion in each restruct cycle
also contributes to breast growth. |
|
|
|
| 10.
Chest |
|
Lung is
the major organ inside the chest. Everyone has two lungs. Right
lung has 3 lobes while left lung has 2 lobes. Both lungs are
enclosed within a rib cage and thoracic muscles. Separating
the chest from the abdomen across the body is the diaphragm.
Together with the nose, glottis, trachea, main bronchus, left
and right bronchus, bronchioles, and the blood supply, they
form the respiratory system.
By the contraction and relaxation of the thoracic muscles and
the diaphragm, the rib cage moves outward and recoils downward.
This results in the inspiration and expiration of the breathing
cycle.
The breathing cycle enables the body to take in oxygen from
air and expel carbon dioxide and water vapour produced from
body metabolism into the atmosphere. Air comes in through the
nose, trachea, main bronchus, bronchioles, and into the alveolar
sacs of the lung. Carbon dioxide and water vapour go in the
opposite direction. Gaseous exchange takes place on the vascular
epithelium of the alveoli. |
|
| 11.
Heart |
|
| The heart
is a vital organ. It is divided into four chambers with two
valves. The atrium receive blood while the ventricle pumps blood
out of the heart. There are valves between the chambers which
ensure blood flowing in the right direction. The heart pumps
blood into arteries which run around the body. The arteries
divide into smaller capillaries which join to form larger veins
and convey blood back to the heart. Blood carries food and oxygen
to body cells and collects carbon dioxide and wastes away. |
|
|
|
|
| 12.
Stomach |
|
The stomach
is an enlargement of the alimentary canal between the oesophagus
and the small intestine. It is divided into two regions : the
body and fundus, and the antrum. Functions of the stomach are
digestion, mixing and storage of food.
The antrum of the stomach and the small intestine are separated
by the pylorus which acts as a sphincter. |
|
| 13.
Pancreas |
|
| The pancreas
is a long, flat-shaped glandular organ, weighting about 80 grams.
It is situated behind the stomach. It contains the exocrine
cells which release digestive enzymes into the duodenum through
the pancreatic duct, and endocrine cells which release various
important hormones (including insulin) directly into the bloodstream.
Insulin is an anabolic hormone that controls the metabolism
of glucose in human body. |
|
| 14.
The Liver |
|
| The liver
is the largest organ in the body. It comprises one fifth of
the total adult body weight. There are two anatomical lobes,
the right being about six times the size of the left. It has
a double blood supply, from the portal vein and hepatic artery.
The gallbladder lies on the inferior border of the liver. It
plays an important role in metabolism and synthesis. Blood tests
for liver function and prothrombin time may reflect abnormalities
in the liver. |
|
| 15.
Gallbladder |
|
| The gallbladder
is a pear-shaped organ located below the liver. It serves as
a reservour for bile. In between meals, the gallbladder concentrates
the bile by absorbing salts and water. Bile is injected via
bile duct into the duodenum for the digestion of fat during
a meal. |
|
| 16.
Small Intestine |
|
| The small
intestine is extending from the stomach to the large intestine
about 6 to 7 metres with the average diameter of 4 cm. Small
intestine is divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
inner surface of the small intestine is arranged into folds
with small finger-like projection for the secretion, digestion
and absorption of food. |
|
| 17.
Large Intestine |
|
| The large
intestine extends from the small intestine to the anus. It is
approximately 5 to 6 feet long and 2 inches in diameter. It
is divided into caecum, colon, and rectum and anus. The caecum
comprises the first 2 to 3 inches of the large intestine. There
is a blind-ended pouch from which extends a small finger-like
projection known as appendix, having no known function. The
colon is divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and
sigmoid colon. Its major functions include absorption of the
remaining water, urea, and electrolytes; secretion of mucus;
and storage of faeces. The rectum and anus are the final segments
of the large intestine. It is about to 8 inches long. The rectum
and anus extend from the sigmoid colon to the anus. |
|
|
|
|
| 18.
Kidneys |
|
| The kidneys
are two bean-shaped organs in the lumbar region. They help to
eliminate waste products, toxins and excessive waste from the
body in the form of urine. Urine from the kidneys moves along
ureters into the bladder. In adult, about 1500 ml of urine is
excreted daily. |
|
|
|
|
| 19.
Urinary Bladder |
|
| The urinary
bladder serves as a receptacle for secretion. It is situated
in the anterior part of the pelvic cavity. It joins to the kidneys
by the ureters and to the exterior of the body by the urethra.
Urine passes to the bladder from the kidneys and it remains
there until it is voided. When the sphincters at the juncture
of the bladder and urethra are relaxed and the muscular walls
of the bladder contract, urination occurs. |
|
|
|
|
| 20.
Penis |
|
| Penis is
the external genitalia of the male reproductive system. It is
also the organ for urination in man. The penis consists of three
cylindrical vascular cords running its entire length. When the
cord becomes engorged with blood, the penis becomes rigid. This
entire process occurs rapidly. Complete erection takes less
than 10 seconds. |
|
| 21.
Bone |
|
| Human has
217 bones in the body. Some of the bones are fused together
. Bones make up the skeleton and provide the rigid framework
that supports the body. The skeleton of human is divided into
two main parts, the axial skeleton which lies in the centre
of the body. It includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs and
sternum. Another is the appendicular skeleton which lies on
either side of the body. It includes the pectoral girdles, pelvic
girdles and limb bones. They protect different internal organs
such as the brain, heart, lungs and organs of the pelvis by
forming the sturdy walls of body cavities. They also make body
movement possible by mechanical aspects of the bone function.
Apart from the mechanical function, it also has the physiological
function. Bone tissue is the storehouse and main supply of reserve
calcium and phosphate. Bone marrow serves as the site for the
manufacture of red cells and some white sells. |
|
|
|
|
| 22.
Spine |
|
| The spinal
composed of 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 fused sacral
and 4 fused coccygeal vertebrae. The function of the spinal
column is to support the whole body and protects the spinal
cord. It is not rigid and allows flexion, extension, lateral
flexion and rotation of body. Between the vertebrae are discs
of cartilage called intervertebral discs which reduce friction
and act as a shock-absorber during movement. |
|
| 23.
Hand |
|
| Hand is
a delicate and complicated multi-system organization. It is
consisted of 27 bones, 30 joints, 33 muscles, innervation from
three peripheral nerves and an intricate vascular system. Hand
is an organ of touch, fine discrimination and exquisite dexterity.
It is highly adaptable and capable of performing an infinite
number of daily living tasks utilizing tools, reach, and grasp. |
|
| 24.
Hip |
|
| Hand is
a delicate and complicated multi-system organization. It is
consisted of 27 bones, Hip joint is a ball-and socket joint.
The basic structure is that the large globular head (ball) of
the femur fits into the deep hemispherical acetabulum (socket).
Actually, the whole hip joint is wrapped by a thick and tense
layer, which is called fibrous capule. There are three ligaments,
which in turn attach to this capule and they are used to prevent
hyperextension (backward bending) of the hip joint. The bones
of the hip are arranged in such a way that the joint forms one
of the most secure, strong and stable articulations in the body.
The forces acting across the hip joint are three times body
weight during walking and four times body weight during running.
The hip moves in four planes and two rotations: flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, and internal and external rotation. |
|
| 25.
Knee |
|
| The knee
is a structure composed of two joints, the tibiofemoral and
the patellofemoral. Both joints are subjected to very high forces
during normal activity. When an individual stands with knees
slightly flexed, force across the tibiofemoral joint may exceed
four times body weight. Wheras force across the patellofemoral
joint may exceed three times body weight. During weight bearing,
most the load is borne by the tibial plateau, but the cartilage,
menisci, and ligaments also share some of the load. The function
of the menisci (specialized articular cartiages of the knee)
is to distribute the loading forces imposed on the tibial plateaus.
The patellae serve to lengthen the lever arm of the quadriceps
for better distribution of compressive forces on the femur. |
|
| 26.
The Foot |
|
| The foot
consists of 26 bones, 33 joints and more than 100 muscles, tendons
and ligaments. It is the base-part of leg in direct contact
with the ground and articulates to the lower ends of tibia and
fibula to form the ankle joint. The foot supports and acts as
a shock absorber for our body. It also acts as a lever to propel
the leg forward while we walk or run and balances our body when
we walk on uneven surfaces. |
|
|
|
|
| 27.
Skin |
|
| The skin
is the largest organ that covers the whole body. It consists
of two major parts: an outer layer , the epidermis ,and an inner
layer ,the corium. It serves as a protective barrier against
micro-organisms, shields the delicate sensitive tissues undernealth
from injuries. It acts as an insulator against cold and heat
,helps eliminate body waste in form of perspiration. It also
guards against excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays and helps
produce the body's supply of vitamin D. Its sense receptors
enable the body to feel pain, cold, heat, touch and pressure. |
|
|
|
|
| 28.
The Ovary |
|
| The
ovary, fallopian tube, uterus and vagina are the components
of the female reproductive organ. It is protected by the pelvic
bones. Ovaries produce the hormone oestrogen and release egg
cell monthly. In the fallopiantube, fertilization of the egg
cell may occur whenever it meets a sperm. The fertilized egg
will develop into an embryo inside the uterus. The baby develops
and delivered though the vagina in 10 month time. If no fertilization
occurs, there will be a periodic discharge of the bloody secretion
containing tissue debris via the vagina known as menstruation. |
|
|
|
|
|
| |
| |
| |
|
